The Path to Peace at Westphalia: Diplomacy and Mediation in the Thirty Years War 1618-1848

All know about the 'defenestration of Prague', the coup d'etat staged by Bohemian nobles against the ruling officials of the Hapsburg empire, which triggered the Thirty Years War - a local dispute which started European and global conflict between the Spanish and Austrian Hapsburgs - the Hapsburg Imperium - the greatest power in Europe and the world - linked by the 'Spanish Road' stretching from Spain and Portugal to Austria, Italy, Germany, the Low Countries and with vast American, Asian and African empires, and buttressed by the Holy Roman Empire. But the 'Golden Age' was ending with threats to monopoly, economic downturn, revolts - as in Bohemia above - and rivalry from rising powers in Europe, especially the Dutch Republic, as a world colonial, economic power especially in international finance. This study shows that Imperial victory at Nordlingen (1634) was merely the prologue to Hapsburg disaster, and to the decisive change in global power politics with the rise of France as a great power under Richelieu and Louis XIII, French victory in Spain, the continuing power and rivalry of Sweden and the Protestant powers in German, and the financial power and imperial challenge of the Dutch Republic. The result was the greatest war of attrition in modern times and precursor of the wars of the 20th century. It is a truly tragic yet magnificent story of great men and women playing huge roles, including the 'titanic' Imperial general Wallenstein, but above all for the triumph of the under-sung yet most successful commander, Torstenson, on the Protestant side, He is a worthy successor to the legendary Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. The final victory at Prague ended the conflict, where it had begun, with Imperial defeat and the destruction the Hapsburg imperium. The Treaty (Treaties) of Westphalia followed Hapsburg defeat and spiralling political and economic collapse, and great human suffering, following a war which changed the global balance of power for the whole modern era.